The bolt action was a new invention in 1841 when the Dreyse needle gun was first introduced. It allowed the user to reload much faster than those still using muzzle-loading weapons — almost 5 times faster — and the shooter didn’t need to expose himself (stand up) to reload the weapon.
The basic idea of a bolt action is a manually operated bolt, manipulated by a handle that unlocks the bolt and opens the breech. The magazine has a spring that pushes a cartridge up into the raceway so it can then be pushed into the chamber by the bolt when it is pushed forward. With a new cartridge in the chamber, the handle is moved down to close and lock the bolt.
When compared to other types of rifle actions, the bolt action has some advantages. It is simple and less expensive to make and can be of lighter weight than other designs. Additionally, it is a strong action, can handle powerful cartridges, and is capable of great accuracy. The only downside is that it doesn’t support a very high rate of fire compared to other alternatives. This mechanism is also used in many hunting rifles, where accuracy and power are highly valued assets.
WWI Considerations
During WWI, millions of men were given rifles and sent into the trenches to fight. Machine-guns and artillery defined the war, but the rifle was a soldier’s constant companion. On the Western Front, what made for a good rifle changed, and the description of the main participants’ rifles was often described this way: “The Germans brought a hunting rifle, the Americans brought a target rifle, the British brought a battle rifle, and the Russians brought a club!” That was a very accurate description in summarizing the attributes of the different designs.
To understand the frame of reference, one must understand the issue facing rifles in World War I. Sitting in the dirty trenches for months at a time, enduring terrible weather, running advances over no man’s land followed by brutal close combat, men needed a rugged weapon that could take the abuse. To offset those conditions, soldiers struggled to keep their weapons clean and properly maintained. Dirt was particularly bad for all the weapons of World War I, because it caused them to jam.
German Gewehr
To understand how each nations’ rifles received its description, let’s look at each one in some detail, starting with Germany. Going into the war, Germany had a strong tradition of superior weaponry. As such, it fielded one of the best rifles of the war, the Gewehr 98. The Gewehr 98, patented by Paul Mauser in 1895, was incredibly sturdy. It was the standard rifle used by the German Army during World War I. With its classic bolt-action system, it set the standard for that type of gun — a standard that is still followed by the arms industry today, making it one of the most successful sporting (as in hunting) firearms ever produced.
Technically, the Gewehr 98 was a manually operated, magazine fed, bolt-action rifle that weighed approximately 9 pounds, and was 49 inches long with a 29-inch barrel. It was fitted with an internal magazine within the receiver holding five 7.92x57mm Gewehr Patrone 1898 cartridges.
The rifle had an open front sight post and a tangent rear sight mounted perpendicular to the line-of-sight. This sight was designed for field use in all levels of light for quick-shooting action against large targets at ranges from 200–2000 meters in 100-meter increments. At the heart of this robust, accurate, and excellent weapon system was the bolt itself with three locking lugs and a larger and stronger receiver.
There are also a couple of gas vent holes built into the bolt. This was to ensure that if there was a rupture of the cartridge case or primer, the hot gases would vent out through the magazine hole instead of near the user’s face. The firing pin was cocked when the bolt was opened by the operator.
Equally impressive was the “controlled round feed” claw extractor cartridge feed system where the rim of the cartridge was grabbed tightly by a non-rotating “claw” when the cartridge left the magazine. This was held in place until the round was ejected from the receiver. Additionally, the two-stage trigger would not operate with the safety on.
Mauser used the two-stage method for two reasons. The first reason was to reduce premature firing under combat conditions. Second, it was to allow a slow pull when firing at distant targets. The Mauser gave the German infantry a slower rate of fire than British Tommies. However, its biggest drawback was its 49.2-inch length.
Why did I say, “The Germans brought a hunting rifle”? Because, in 1905 Mauser introduced the 9.3x62mm cartridge for its bolt-action rifle. The cartridge had a profound and lasting influence on hunters in Africa.
By the turn of the 20th century, four of the major British rifle manufacturers, Holland & Holland, John Rigby & Co., W.J. Jeffery & Co, and Westley Richards designed new cartridges that would operate in the magnum Mauser 98 action. These cartridges could offer big-bore nitro express ballistics and performance in a magazine rifle. An example of this was what the British called its bolt-action rifles. From 1909, the heart of every European gunmakers’ finest bolt-action rifles was a Mauser action, and that worldwide trend continues today. Ergo, A hunting rifle.
American M1903
America entered the war late. The ‘Dough Boys’ brought a compromise weapon. Unlike other nations, we elected to create a hybrid long gun that could serve as both a service rifle and carbine in one end-product with a Mauser-type mechanism. The M1903 bolt-action service rifle was the standard infantry rifle of the American Army throughout its participation in World War I.
The design had its origins in the tried-and-true German Mauser action of which many other bolt-action rifle designs of the time had adopted or copied. The U.S. went on to adopt the modified “Mauser” system. Later, it was forced to pay a then-hefty sum of $200,000 for the license from Germany for patent infringement and production rights.
The cartridge that would be paired with the Springfield was designated the M1903. The U.S. adopted a pointed-bullet design that was a 150-grain cartridge known as the “Cartridge, Ball, Caliber .30, Model of 1906” (known as the .30-06 Thirty Ought-Six). With a muzzle velocity of 2,800 feet per second, it was more powerful than the British No.1 Mk III, but not as fast firing.
The bolt handle of the Springfield featured a ball at its end to ensure a firm grip in the heat of battle. The “turn-bolt” design shifted up-and-backward to eject a spent shell casing and introduce a fresh cartridge with a forward-down action. The magazine was internal and fixed in place, requiring the use of cartridge “charger clips” containing five ready-to-fire cartridges. It also had a magazine cut off to allow for loading single cartridges. Excellent iron sights at the front and rear assisted accuracy at range.
Because Springfield Armory designed, developed, and produced the M1903, it acquired the unofficial name of “M1903 Springfield” for its entire operational life. Similarly, the cartridge came to be known as the “.30-06 Springfield” for its relation to the armory. The result was a reliable bolt action that was easy to use and nicely balanced. Additionally, it was more accurate than most rifles of the period, firing to target-shooting standards.
I can’t really tell you why the M1903 Springfield rifle is so accurate. I can only assure you that its accuracy was legendary.
Starting with the U.S. Marine combat marksmanship in WWI at Chateau-Thierry, and Belleau Wood where the Germans could not believe they were being hit at 800 yards (the distance between them and the Marines). One Marine was awarded the DSC for a 1,400-yard shot with a M1903. So, I guess ‘target rifle’ is an accurate description.
OK, it’s time to look at the only battle rifle in the mix and why that is or was.
British Lee Enfield
Going into the war, the British had a weapon that met the requirements and was the latest in the series of Lee-Enfield rifles — one of the most successful bolt-action rifles of all time. The Rifle No.1 Mk III was the latest variation of the Short Magazine Lee-Enfield (SMLE) rifle. It was the standard infantry rifle of the British in WWI. It was brought into service in 1907 and was produced by a variety of manufacturers including the United States, Canada, Australia, and India. It is estimated that some 17 million rifles of this type were produced.
The Short Magazine Lee-Enfield Mk I (SMLE) weighed in at roughly 8.8 pounds. It featured an overall length of 44.5 inches, with a barrel length of 25 inches. As for the design of this rifle, pushing the bolt closed cocks the action. This makes opening the bolt a lot faster and smoother, compared to the cock-on-opening design of the Mauser.
That feature, coupled with its larger capacity 10-round magazine, meant that a user could shoot 20 times in 60 seconds, making it the fastest bolt-action rifle of its day. A high rate of fire was essential, and the effective range was less critical with guns needing only to be accurate to 400 yards. The shorter length of the Mk III was better suited and made it easier to wield in a confined trenches than the other longer rifles.
Although it was criticized for its rear locking lug mechanism that was (in theory) weaker than those of other weapons, it worked smoothly. The system gave users minimal trouble and contributed to its smooth reliability. The design allowed British soldiers to achieve remarkably high rates of fire.
The official cartridge designation was the .303 Mk VII SAA Ball with a muzzle velocity of 2,441 feet per second, although the 0.303-inch bullet actually measures 0.311 in diameter and has an effective range of approximately 2,000 yards. The weapon was loaded with 5-round charger clips through the top of the weapon body. Cartridges could also be loaded individually.
The Lee-Enfield rifle is still used by police in various states in India and is found in ceremonial roles over 100 years since its introduction into service. The higher magazine capacity and faster rate is what qualifies it as the only battle rifle in the parade.
Russian ‘Club’
Now for the ‘club’! Like all other world powers during the late-1800s, the Russian Empire sought modernization in its military inventory. This was particularly important after the disastrous results of the Russian campaign against the Ottoman Empire in the 1877–1878 Russo-Ottoman War. In 1889, several rifles were under consideration, including one from Russian artillery Captain Sergei Ivanovich Mosin and another from the Belgian brothers Emile and Leon Nagant.
It was decided to combine the best features of both rifles into an all-new design. Due to the design work by the Nagant brothers as well as modifications handled by Mosin, this new rifle became known under the hyphenated name of Mosin-Nagant. Because its introduction occurred in 1891, the rifle was assigned the apt designation of Model 1891 or M1891.
Outwardly, Mosin-Nagant rifles were highly conventional in their approach and action. The receiver held the metal action which consisted of the commonly accepted turn-bolt handle with a knobbed end. To open the bolt, one turned the bolt handle upward, and then rearward. Unlike later bolt-action types, the Mosin-Nagant sported a 90-degree bolt handle that protruded away from the gun body (as opposed to resting against it).
The weapon featured an integral magazine into which five-round clips were fed through the open action. A control latch secured the lower cartridges (those apart from the first cartridge) to alleviate the magazine spring’s pressure causing an issue during the bolt’s movement. This mechanism proved important in feeding the rimmed cartridges in an efficient manner. It also cut down on potential stoppages in the action.
The Mosin-Nagant fired the 7.62x54R Russian rifle cartridge which offered good range and penetration. The M1891 had a 28.8-inch barrel and featured an overall length of 48.75 inches. It was longer, more cumbersome, and heavier than competing rifles of the day.
Imperial Russian troops were issued Mosin-Nagant rifles during World War I along the Eastern Front. It became the standard issue long gun of those Russian troops during the bitter struggle of trench warfare. Millions of M1891s were believed produced from Russian factories to supply the soldiers in need.
The end of Tsarist Russia and the rise of Communism ended Russian participation before it ended in 1918. A short civil war then followed in which communist power became the way of things in the new Soviet Union. The Mosin-Nagant Model 1891 was an unexceptional sturdy weapon that could take a battering in the hands of inexperienced soldiers. And that is why it was referred to as a club.
Pretty good piece, but the author needs to end his reliance on spell checkers (“…several rifles where under consideration…”, instead of “were”), and learn the proper use of the hyphen (“49-inches long” = wrong usage, “with a 29-inch barrel” = correct usage).
Excellent observation. The 03 Springfield was not as important or as numerous in WW1 as the 1917. The signfigance of the 1917 was it’s ease of manufacture (hence greater numbers), streamlining of the Mauser design while still keeping its most important features and aperture sights. Most of which would be incorporated as “add-ons” to the 1903A3 between the wars while adopted by manufacturers of sporting rifles to actually make a profitable product. The author also downplays the signifigance of continued use of the 1917 through WW2. (I owned one that bore the cartouche of Elmer Kieth who inspected it for WW2 service)
The Krag was a great rifle– but not for The Great War to End All Wars. I felt the 1917 really deserved a slot, but the author factored the list based on nostalgia and cut the list to four, and while I liked the 1917 it did not get the icon treatment.
@HW Stone
Yeah, the Krag wasn’t the greatest but you must admit it was an interesting rifle.
While the Army railway engineers came with a couple of thousand .30-40 Krag rifles it seems they never fired one in anger during WW1, thus it is not a top rifle slot candidate.
If we’re gonna… 7.62x51R Mosin… and the 7.92×57
But who forgot the 30-40 Krag?
Don’t write off the French Model 1886 8mm rifle. The Lebel rifle remained the basic weapon of French infantry during World War I (1914–1918). Altogether, 3.45 million Lebel rifles were produced by the three French state factories between 1887 and 1916.
Great article. I had never wondered what rifles were used in the Great War. This article and resulting commentary were enlightening. Of them all all I have are Mosin Nagants, both the M91 and from WWII, the M38. They are very accurate and dependable. I’ve hunted with the M38. The 7.62×54 to me is a big boy round that is basically a 30.06. Or very close. The elevated rear sight ramps are spot in out to at least 600 yards. Right on the money. Mosin’s are solid rifles and should not be overlooked.
Every one of these commenters incorrectly call the SMLE an “Enfield”. The official name for the rifle is Lee-Enfield, named for James Paris Lee (9.Aug.1831 – 24.Feb.1904), a Scots-American inventor and arms designer. “Enfield” refers to The Royal Small Arms Factory (RSAF) located in Enfield, England. Capisce? Inventor + factory!
You sure have my vote on the Gewehr 98 and the Mosin-Nagant. Both of them are definitely real work horses.
Mr. Garrison
I did not make a monumental blunder by leaving out the M1917 Enfield. It was deliberately omitted because unlike the other 4 rifles in the article did not emerge from the conflict with a suitable sobriquet to qualify it for the subject of the article. Additionally, you are incorrect because it was the new standard going forward they just could not produce them fast enough to arm all of our troops with them.
I own a 303 Enfield and at 100 yards at the range can hit a quarter without any scope. Purchased it for $10.00 in 1959 and it is all original except the Brimington Armory cannot tell me what battle it was in cause all records were destroyed by the Nazis in tn WWII. All numbers match. It is my favorite rifle and can crack a cinder block in half. Not to much a recoil , but ir sure makes a load BANG.
Sgt Alvin York swapped his 17 Enfield for another soldiers 03 Springfield because he said he liked the Springfeilds sights better.
This story was told by Alvin’s son.
We all know what our fathers carried in yhe war.
In WW2 my Dad carried a 1918 Browning Automatic Rifle from Guadalcanal to Iwo Jima.
The Enfield? Really? An even older club than the Mosin-Nagant. All those weird welded-on bridges for feeding from clips were an attempt to correct problems faced in the Boer War against real Mausers. Even the British understood the rifle was obsolete and had a proper Mauser, the Pattern 1914, on the launch pad when war broke out. We made them at Winchester, Remington, and Eddystone until we got into the Great War and repurposed it to 30-06 as the Model 1917. More of those were issued to our troops (over 2 million produced) than the 03 Springfield (somewhere around a million during the WW1) with 75% of WWI American doughboys being armed with 1917s. Alvin York earned his Medal of Honor with one. It became the bais for the Remington 30S between the Wars with another 25,000 produced by them. The 03 Springfield was a problem gun until the heat treatment problem was solved AFTER the war. No such problems with the M1917. Completely missing the M1917, the author might be the “least knowledgable gun writer in the world” but certainly not interesting.
The Enfield? Really? An even older club than the Mosin-Nagant. All those weird welded-on bridges for feeding from clips were an attempt to correct problems faced in the Boer War against real Mausers. Even the British understood the rifle was obsolete and had a proper Mauser, the Pattern 1914, on the launch pad when war broke out. We made them at Winchester, Remington, and Eddystone until we got into the Great War and repurposed it to 30-06 as the Model 1917. More of those were issued to our troops (over 2 million produced) than the 03 Springfield (somewhere around a million during the WW1) with 75% of WWI American doughboys being armed with 1917s. Alvin York earned his Medal of Honor with one. It became the bais for the Remington 30S between the Wars with another 25,000 produced by them. The 03 Springfield was a problem gun until the heat treatment problem was solved AFTER the war. No such problems with the M1917. Completely missing the M1917, the author might be the “least knowledgable gun writer in the world” but certainly not interesting.
The writer could redeem himself with an in-depth piece on my favorite bolt-action combat rifle of all time, the M-1917 Enfield. Oh, and don’t forget its bayonet. NEVER forget your bayonet.
I’ve owned a 1903 and enjoyed it but I like the sights on the M1903 the best. A good example of the accuracy of a 1903 look up the feat of George Farr at Camp Perry!
I think leaving out the Lebel and Berthier is a mistake. They chambered the first smokeless powder cartridge and actually worked quite well. But they kick like mules
I have inheirted each of these rifles (except the Enfield) I believe, from experiance, that the best rifle of the war was the
6.5 Swedish Mauser. Not as powerful as the others. but easier to shoot. and more accurate.I believe this rifle was used by Finland in the preceeding “Winter War.”
The author makes a monumental blunder by omitting the M1917, as explained by Colonel K, above. The overwhelming number of USAEF Dough Boys carried this weapon. It is incorrect to state that the 1903 Springfield was the “standard” U.S. infantry weapon throughout WWI. It simply was not. This is a common misconception among gun writers who do not do their homework.
I had a M1903-got it from Sears when I was14, had teh bayonet, cleaning kit in the stock and the sling. I always wondered who might have been the soldier that carried during the war. I’m 72 now, Ten years ago someone broke into my house while I was deployed with the military reserves and stole my M1903. Last year I saw a picture of it in American Rifle magazine, I knew it was mine because i had, as a kid , used my fingernail to scratch an identifying mark on the stock. I sure wish I could buy another one. I bought that one for twenty dollars. I ‘m sure I couldn’t afford what an authentic one would cost now.
Thanks for the history lesson Ed. Entertaining and.informative!
I have never fired a 1903 but have heard good things.
Reading this has me realizing i am out of .303 reloads for my 2 Enfields.
I had one from 1896 but i let it go because it was not full wood. So many got cut after they came home. If only they could’ve known at the time how much we would have liked them left in (full) stock condition.
My friend just got his hands on an unfired new in the goo and paper wrapping Enfield from post wwii. If only i had some spare monies.
Brass does stretch a little more than ‘usual’ due to the rear lugs but mild reloads and careful inspection of brass works for me.
Thanks for the article.
I agree with colonel k the one thing i would add is that the us didnot have enough Springfield rifles to field a large impromptu army and Winchester and Remington were already tooled up and producing p14 Enfield much simpler to adapt the rifle to the 30-06 round than took up to produce Springfield rifles. Also if you do some fact checking I think you will find those certs of marksmanship were done with the Enfield p17 included in that should be Alvin Yorks feats.
I own examples of all of these rifles, the exceptions being that my Mausers are WWII 98K and my SMLE is actually an Ishapore. I must say that for many years I eschewed and poo pooed the Mosins. Then, my son asked me to buy him one, so I did. I ended up buying one for myself, and later bought another (one Tula, one Ishevsk.) The Mosin Nagant rifle is, to my old eyes, ugly as sin itself, but once I held one, I was impressed with the balance. I was shocked by how accurate mine are, too. Crude, yes, but undeniably effective. As a note, my dad was issued a couple of different rifles in WWII, the P17, the M1903, and the GI Carbine. His hands down favorite was the M1903.
A note on the accuracy– the US military was the only buyer who demanded absolute centering of the bore and very, very strict size, lands uniformity, and final polishing of the bore.
The Germans accepted tolerances for centering, lands, and had good standards that were still a lot “looser” than US specifications and acceptance testing, and the Brits had even wider tolerances. The Russian rifles made during peacetime were much better than the “hurry up and make it” rifles during the war.
Americans are known for overtesting and over specification requirements.
I like it that way.
.
The most prominent rifle issued to the US Army in WWI was the M1917 Enfield. Originally designed by the British as the P14 and chambered for their .303 cartridge, it was manufactured by Winchester and Remington. Remington altered the design to accommodate the 30-06, resulting in the M1917 designation. During WWI this was the American rifle that was renowned for its excellent adjustable rear peep sight. By comparison the 1903 Springfield used a notched rear sight mounted much further forward in the style of the German, British, and Russian rifles. Unlike its contemporaries, the Springfield rear sight was a ladder type that folded down. This was the normal carry position. In this position the rifle was sighted for 500 yards. Once the ladder was raised, things got complicated. You now had a choice of two different height notches and a peep below them. Windage adjustments were very crude and shifted the bullet as much as 8″ per notch at 100 yards. In addition, automatic windage adjustment was built into the ladder, so as you moved the sight up, windage shifted to compensate for bullet spin drift. If you folded the ladder back down without sliding the leaf to the rear, your windage would be way off. I suspect the reason the Springfield is fondly remembered as a target rifle has more to do with match shooting which involved gauging barrels for determining the very best ones and hand-fitting and tuning all parts for maximum performance. Post-WWI, a lot of match shooters compensated for the crudely adjustable rear sight by using the O’Hare micrometer to make fine adjustments. Eventually aftermarket micrometer sights were installed on national match Springfield and became a common sight (no pun intended).